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Quality of Life Research Briefs
In an effort to provide you with a variety of resources
on growth management policies, we are providing you with the following policy
briefs by the Washington Research Council. These papers have been prepared
as part
of a series of research briefs developed for our Quality of Life research
program. We hope you find these resources to be helpful in your efforts to
improve the Quality of Life in your communities and the marketability of
property in your neighborhoods by ensuring economic vitality, providing housing
opportunities and building better communities, and useful in your advocacy
efforts with state and local policy-makers.
Local Government and Climate Change: Effective Local Responses to a Global Problem
State and local governments establish many of the public policies that shape individual and organizational decisions with respect to greenhouse gas emissions. But the disconnect between the global scope of the issue and the local venue for action makes it difficult to balance costs and benefits. At the same time, however, a local focus on energy efficiency and waste reduction can have far reaching benefits beyond their possible impact on climate change…Comprehensive plan updates will increasingly contain components related to climate change and energy.
Buildable Lands Process 2007 – Part 1 and Part 2
The Buildable Lands process is designed to provide a feedback loop for the Growth Management Act (GMA). The primary goals of the process are to determine if city and county comprehensive plans are achieving the goals of higher densities and compact development, and to estimate if the supply of land within urban growth areas (UGAs) is sufficient to meet projected growth needs. The Research Council study notes that without better information about infrastructure availability and an array of market forces, local governments cannot make accurate assessments of the sufficiency of the land supply.
Part I looks at the Buildable Lands process itself and the methodologies used and the degree to which they provide sufficient information for good growth planning at the local level. Part II examines each individual report to assess whether the development capacity identified within the urban growth areas is sufficient to meet development needs over the next 15 years.
Infrastructure in Washington, Part I:
Policy Brief: Connecting to Growth - This policy brief looks at the challenges facing state and local agencies as they try to keep up with the infrastructure needs of a growing state. It begins with a look at growth trends and how they are likely to affect infrastructure networks. It continues with some specific policy dilemmas faced by state and local agencies, followed by a discussion of priority-setting processes that determine how money gets spent. The brief concludes with a review of funding sources now in use and the degree to which they can be used to fund system expansions and extensions needed for growth.
Infrastructure in Washington, Part II:
Policy Brief: Letting Growth Pay for Growth - State government and many local governments have taken serious steps to address deficiencies in basic infrastructure. Significant amounts of money are being spent on highways and sewage treatment plants, as well as local roads. Most of these expenditures are aimed at remedying deficiencies rather than extending systems to accommodate growth in urban areas. This brief discusses policy changes and specific revenue mechanisms that could create additional funding for the infrastructure needed to support the growth that will head our way in the next decades. The brief begins with a short discussion of the political environment within which governments make growth and infrastructure funding decisions, followed by a set of principles that should guide efforts to expand infrastructure capacity to meet the needs of growth. It concludes with a series of recommendations for revenue strategies to provide infrastructure funding specifically to accommodate housing and job growth.
Give ‘Em Shelter, Part 1:
POLICY
BRIEF: Housing for Economic Development
This brief looks at the various ways that housing interacts with the
economy and describes ways that the dynamics within the housing market
can both help and hurt the economy of the state. Efforts to improve
economic development and the business climate in Washington State must
recognize that, along with transportation, education and the regulatory
environment, the state’s housing stock has a great influence on
the health of the economic environment.
Give ‘Em Shelter, Part 2:
POLICY
BRIEF: Buildable Lands Process Flawed
This brief examines the implications of the buildable lands process
as it relates to the availability of land for housing. The buildable
lands process was intended to provide data to city and county governments
as they update the comprehensive plans they use to manage growth. The
process used for the first round of buildable lands reviews has proven
to be far from sufficient. The problem is that a whole host of factors
not considered during the process will determine whether a parcel deemed
“buildable” will actually see new housing construction in
the next 20 years.
Give ‘Em Shelter, Part 3:
POLICY
BRIEF: Housing Supply: The Quiet Job Killer
This brief takes a look at the demand and supply dynamics of the housing
market, showing what happens when supply does not respond adequately
to signals from the demand side. State and local governments in Washington
are undertaking aggressive economic development programs designed to
create jobs for people in a wide range of skill levels. A lack of land
capacity for housing in urban areas hampers these efforts. Land use
policies have to recognize that the opportunity for middle income jobs
depends on the availability of middle income housing.
Give ‘Em Shelter, Part 4:
POLICY
BRIEF: Housing Supply: State Actions
While most plans and regulations that govern homebuilding are made at
the local level, the framework for those plans and regulations is created
by the state. Many areas of Washington State are experiencing a housing
supply crisis, with the homebuilding industry unable to keep up with
demand and prices rising by double-digit rates. State policies helped
create this situation and it is incumbent on the state to take action
to remedy it. This brief outlines ways that action at the state level
can help remedy the situation.
Give ‘Em Shelter, Part 5:
POLICY
BRIEF: Housing Supply: Local Actions
The housing supply in Washington State is ultimately determined by local
government: cities and counties approve and record every new plat and
issue every building permit. Local zoning and development regulations
govern density and building envelopes. Local governments also set standards
for streets and for water and sewer utilities. Housing is a regional
and state need, but the supply is ultimately regulated by cities and
counties. Local governments need to embrace change in their communities
and welcome new additions to their housing stock. This brief describes
actions that should be taken at the city and county level to increase
the housing supply.
Washington's Infrastructure Needs, Part 1:
POLICY
BRIEF: Plans, Funds and Gaps - Whether Washington State and
the communities within it grow with grace depends, in large part, on
the ability of state and local governments to keep up basic infrastructure
needs. This policy brief provides an overview of the state's identified
infrastructure needs and funding gaps, focusing on roads and highways
and water and sewer utilities.
Washington's Infrastructure Needs, Part 2:
POLICY
BRIEF: Current Funding and Financing Tools - State and local agencies
pay for infrastructure projects through a combination of user fees, general
funds, operating revenue and grants, and leverage through various debt instruments.
This paper provides an overview of the basic fund sources and financing tools
available to state and local governments, followed by a description of how
those tools are used by various agencies.
Washington's Infrastructure Needs, Part 3:
POLICY
BRIEF: Innovative Funding, Financing and Management Tools - As state
and local government agencies find traditional funding and financing mechanisms
inadequate to meet fully our infrastructure needs, they increasingly seek
out new ways to pay for projects. This paper reviews new sources of money
available to agencies and ways the agencies may make more efficient use of
their existing sources.
Washington's Infrastructure Needs, Part 4:
POLICY
BRIEF: Governance and Decision-Making - Major infrastructure projects
can involve all three levels of government, with decisions taking place in
legislative, executive and judicial settings. This brief outlines the array
of participants in infrastructure decisions, describes some of the challenges
inherent in decision-making about projects, and suggests actions that could
help bring order to the chaos.
Growth in Perspective, Part 1:
POLICY
BRIEF: A Decade of Growth and Prosperity - Ten years after the legislature
adopted the Growth Management Act, Washingtonians continue to grapple with
the effects of growth and economic development. Without question, the state's
economic prosperity, concentrated in the Puget Sound region, has spurred population
growth. And that increased population has, in turn, generated increased economic
activity. In a series of reports, the Washington Research Council will address
some of the issues attending economic and population growth. This first report
examines the relationship between growth and prosperity.
Growth in Perspective, Part 2:
POLICY
BRIEF: A Firm Foundation for Growth - Adequate infrastructure roads,
water and sewer systems, schools - can assure that accommodating the influx
of new population works to the benefit of communities in fast-growing regions
of our state. Today, however, Washington faces significant backlogs in necessary
infrastructure investment. While road construction and maintenance represents
the most immediate and critical demand, reliable research documents substantial
need for local government infrastructure investment, as well.
Growth in Perspective, Part 3:
POLICY
BRIEF: Managing Growth is a Balancing Act - Imbalances in the location
of jobs and housing are an increasing problem in the most heavily urbanized
areas of Washington. These imbalances contribute to a deterioration of the
regional quality of life, extending commute times and increasing congestion.
Growth in Perspective, Part 4:
POLICY
BRIEF: Local Government Efforts to Promote Economic Growth and Development
- Local governments often set the tone for a community's success in attracting
economic growth. By laying the proper groundwork-coordinating planning and
permit review processes, providing infrastructure, ensuring land availability
through zoning ordinances, implementing effective development regulations,
providing information-a community can set the stage for successful efforts
of working with the business community for job retention, expansion and recruitment.
Growth in Perspective, Part 5:
POLICY
BRIEF: Growth Management Effects on Real Estate - The Growth Management
Act presents several challenges for the real estate development industry.
The help of local governments in meeting these challenges is critical to the
success of Smart Growth.
Growth in Perspective, Part 6:
POLICY
BRIEF: Accommodating Growth Through Infill Development - Encouraging
infill development is universally accepted as good public policy. But in spite
of all the advantages, developers of infill housing face a number of impediments.
Cities should work to remove these impediments.
Growth in Perspective, Part 7:
POLICY
BRIEF: The Contribution of Real Estate to the Washington State Economy
- Real estate is the base upon which the state's economy is built. Directly
and indirectly, it accounts for a quarter of state employment. Taxes on real
estate and real estate related industries provide much of state and local
governments' tax revenues. As federal, state and local governments consider
land use controls, development regulations, and other growth management measures
that restrict the use of real estate, it would be wise to consider the potential
consequences in lost jobs, personal income, and tax revenue.
Growth in Perspective, Part 8:
POLICY
BRIEF: Smart Growth and Buildable Land - In this brief, we discuss
buildable land, as it is defined by the Growth Management Act (GMA), explain
the challenge of knowing how much is available in any given urban area, and
consider the constraints to developing these lands.
Growth in Perspective, Part 9:
POLICY
BRIEF: Impact of Government Regulations and Fees on Housing Costs
-Governments impose regulations on development for reasons they consider sound,
but such regulations result in higher prices for homebuyers. Urban growth
boundaries, impact fees, sensitive area and wetland ordinances, and complicated,
prolonged permitting processes are not only contributing to the costs of developing
new housing, but inflating the prices of existing housing throughout Washington
and the country.
Growth in Perspective, Part 10:
POLICY
BRIEF: Taxes and Fees on the Construction of a House - The construction
of a new home generates a considerable amount of revenue for state and local
government. About half of all of the tax and fee revenue goes to the state
rather than to local governments. At the state level, nearly all of the revenues
go into the general fund, to pay for ongoing state services. At the local
level, 70 percent of the revenues are dedicated to fund the construction of
public facilities, while 30 percent pay for general operations. As we have
pointed out, building activity provides very attractive tax revenues to the
state and local government.
State and local governments may find it prudent (and a wise
use of funds) to direct these one-time revenues to fund the gap in infrastructure
needs. If a community wants to get a handle on growth, it should facilitate
quality growth through more effective use of its capital improvements program,
and more effective use of the one-time tax revenues generated from home construction.
Local governments should finance infrastructure projects that encourage economic
growth and quality development. The construction of these community revitalization
projects will encourage investments in job-producing private development,
and expand the tax base. These investments will encourage the economic growth
and prosperity the community wants and needs, bringing with it the increased
on-going tax revenues from property, sales, and business taxes that will pay
for the public services
the community demands.
Growth in Perspective, Part 11:
POLICY
BRIEF: Rural Development - The Growth Management Act (GMA) requires
each county planning under the Act to include a chapter in its comprehensive
plan on rural lands, encouraging them to set aside areas for rural uses, resource
conservation, and environmental protection. Rural planning elements "shall
permit land uses that are compatible with the rural character of such lands
and provide for a variety of densities." In addition to the GMA's requirement
that counties designate certain lands as rural, the state, for certain grant
purposes, classifies any county with fewer than 100 people per square mile
as a "rural county." Problems with planning and developing in rural
areas persist. Making appropriate adjustments to legislative and regulatory
rules and requirements that acknowledge these circumstances would seem a reasonable
place to start.
GMA: Goals and Promises Reviewed, Part 1:
POLICY
BRIEF: Washington's Growth Management Act - Goals and Promises -Thirteen
goals were specified in the GMA. The goals reflect their genesis in the politics
of compromise, embracing property rights and economic development while mandating
efforts to curb sprawl and protect the environment. Local governments planning
under the GMA will be expected to update and revise their comprehensive plans
and development regulations. At the same time, citizens should be asking if
the GMA is meeting the goals envisioned a decade ago. If not, what should
be changed?
GMA: Goals and Promises Reviewed, Part 2:
POLICY
BRIEF: Economic Development: GMA's Missing Link - The GMA recognizes
economic development as one of the Act's thirteen goals. With the state mired
in recession, political and business leaders increasingly recognize that economic
vitality must be encouraged. Planning and public policy affect business retention,
location, and expansion decisions. Communities that want to manage growth
successfully plan for healthy economic development. The reason for including
an economic element in the comprehensive plan is to assure that local officials,
in consultation with their constituents, identify what they want to accomplish
with regard to economic vitality. Elevating economic development within the
context of the GMA not only makes sense, it is essential to successful implementation
of growth management. For the goal to have meaning, however, it must be attached
to a plan. Specifically, it needs to be incorporated in the comprehensive
plan of each community subject to the GMA.
GMA: Goals and Promises Reviewed, Part 3:
POLICY
BRIEF: Reviewing Growth Management - Planning for Housing - The GMA
is specific in its requirements for comprehensive plan housing elements. Each
community must provide an analysis of existing and projected housing needs
that identifies the number of housing units necessary to manageprojected growth;
includes a statement of goals, policies, objectives, and mandatory provisions
for the preservation, improvement, and development of housing; (c) identifies
sufficient land for housing; and (d) makes adequate provisions for existing
and projected needs of all economic segments of the community. As communities
update their comprehensive plans, the keys to success require the basics:
Predictability, certainty, timeliness, flexibility, and a cooperative relationship
between community planners and the development community. For the GMA to work,
local governments must maximize development in urban areas to offset lower
density development objectives in rural areas. Unless this happens, the supply
of housing will fall short of demand. This will, in turn, lead to higher housing
prices and increase traffic congestion.
GMA: Goals and Promises Reviewed, Part 4:
POLICY
BRIEF: New Population Projections for GMA Planning - Counties planning
under GMA are required to update their comprehensive plans to accommodate
projected growth. The census provides the basis for new projections by the
Office of Financial Management of future population growth for the state's
counties. Changes in the planning targets for population will affect several
elements in the comprehensive plans: If a county's population planning targets
rise, the housing element of the comprehensive plan must identify land to
meet the housing needs of the additional residents. Traffic forecasts must
be updated and the transportation element of the comprehensive plan must set
out specific actions to assure that local transportation facilities continue
to meet established level-of-service standards. Similarly, the capital facilities
element of the comprehensive plan must be adjusted to accommodate the additional
population. However, this intent will be frustrated if the population projections
used by the counties understate the growth that actually occurs. When plans
fail to provide sufficient housing near to centers of employment growth, house
prices are pushed up and workers are forced to commute longer distances to
their jobs. The long commutes exacerbate the regional traffic congestion.
There is a clear asymmetry in the consequences error in planning for the growth
of demand for housing in a location: the cost of under forecasting the demand
is less than the cost of over forecasting the demand. To compensate counties
should choose
population planning targets toward the high end of the range provided by OFM.
GMA: Goals and Promises Reviewed, Part 5:
POLICY
BRIEF: Build for Vitality - By financing infrastructure projects that
encourage economic vitality, accommodate growth, and provide the amenities
that build better communities, communities will promote investments in job-producing
private development and help to expand the tax base for other necessary public
services and facilities.
GMA: Goals and Promises Reviewed, Part 6:
POLICY
BRIEF: Trends in Washington Housing - Two distinct trends in housing
preferences stand out in Washington's housing market; large single-family
homes typically located outside of the central city and dense, multifamily
residences in downtown city centers. The demand for both types of housing
has produced substantial development in downtowns and suburban corridors for
several years. Demand for these distinct choices represents the diversity
of preferences among consumers, and both choices merit equal representation
when discussing housing needs of local communities. Housing choices have been
determined by the ups and downs in state population and the economy. The influx
of residents and job growth over the decade fueled a growing housing market
in both single and multifamily homes. Population in the state will continue
to grow near employment centers. Affordable housing development in and around
the urban core can prosper if local regulations support its growth.
GMA: Goals and Promises Reviewed, Part 7:
POLICY
BRIEF: Property Rights and the Growth Management Act - Planning goals
of the Growth Management Act aim both to protect the rights of individual
property owners and to preserve large portions of the state's land area as
undeveloped open space. These goals come into conflict when the land to be
preserved is privately owned. The sixth goal of the GMA is a strong statement
in support of property rights: "Private property shall not be taken for
public use without just compensation having been made. The property rights
of landowners shall be protected from arbitrary and discriminatory actions."
Strong property rights are a key prerequisite for economic development in
a market economy. Businesses only invest where the expected rate of return
is sufficiently high to compensate for the risks that they face. Insecure
property rights increase risks and decrease willingness to invest.
Other Research Council Policy Briefs and Special Reports:
SPECIAL
REPORT: Myths and Facts Regarding the Costs of Growth in Washington
- "No-growth" advocates have fixed on the notion that "growth
does not pay for itself." Their contention widely misses the mark. Growth,
obviously, does pay for itself. As Dr. Richard Morrill so succinctly put it,
"if urban development did not pay for itself eventually, we would not
have 200 million people thriving in our cities."1 Over time, growth generates
economic activity, reflected in increased employment, investment, retail sales,
government revenues, and charitable giving, creating the types of communities
people want to live in. In short, the cumulative, long-term effects of sustained
growth are seen in thriving metropolitan communities - the kind of communities
that define the Puget Sound region today.
SPECIAL
REPORT: Housing Affordability in the Puget Sound Metropolitan Area
- This report examines the region's housing challenge, focusing on four areas
of concern: 1) the relationship between the business cycle and the supply
and price of housing, including rental housing; 2) the relative affordability
of housing, with particular attention to the buying opportunities for households
earning below the median income level in the region; 3) an assessment of the
progress made toward meeting the housing goals established in the metropolitan
counties' comprehensive plans; and 4) a comparison of the Seattle area with
five metropolitan areas on the basis of housing affordability and several
selected quality-of-life measures. (A Policy Brief summary of this report,
Housing Prices Continue to Soar, is available in HTML or «.pdf»)
SPECIAL
REPORT: The Balance Between Jobs and Housing - Housing affordability
is a clearly stated goal of GMA. If housing is to be affordable, there must
be an adequate supply of housing available near to the places where work is
concentrated. Vision 2020 recognizes this and establishes a policy to promote
a balance of jobs to housing within each part of the region to provide the
opportunity for more residents to live nearer to jobs and urban activities.
If residents are truly to have the chance to find affordable housing near
to their jobs, jobs and housing need to be balanced in smaller geographic
areas. This report examines the location of jobs and housing on a sub-county
scale, and finds that recent growth of jobs and housing within King County
has not been balanced: Seattle and the Eastside have added jobs much more
rapidly than they have added housing. The result has been rapidly increasing
costs for housing in these areas. In contrast, jobs and housing growth has
been more balanced in south King County, and the cost of housing has increased
less there
SPECIAL
REPORT: Washington Alliance for a Competitive Economy: Competitiveness Report
- Washington's plunge from prosperity to recession caught many policymakers
by surprise - and radically refocused the competitiveness debate. The slowdown
has affected all parts of the state and no major sector of our economy remains
unscathed. Our unemployment rate is among the nation's highest. Laid-off workers
wonder if there will be jobs for them to return to; some see little prospect
of re-employment here and plan to leave the state. Business owners worry that
the recovery will occur too late for them. Public officials see declining
tax revenues that are throwing state and local budgets out of balance. Public
policy has impeded economic expansion. Too often, hurdles in the form of uncompetitive
tax policies, unnecessary regulation, or inadequate infrastructure stand in
the way of business development. As the economy slowed in the last year and
a half, the challenges represented by these barriers loomed larger. Areas
we examine include transportation and infrastructure, education and workforce
preparation, taxation, regulation, housing, and quality of life.
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